-//! Traits for conversions between types.
//!
-//! The traits in this module provide a general way to talk about conversions
-//! from one type to another. They follow the standard Rust conventions of
-//! `as`/`into`/`from`.
+//! The traits in this module provide a way to convert from one type to another type.
//!
-//! Like many traits, these are often used as bounds for generic functions, to
-//! support arguments of multiple types.
+//! Each trait serves a different purpose:
//!
-//! - Implement the `As*` traits for reference-to-reference conversions
-//! - Implement the [`Into`] trait when you want to consume the value in the conversion
-//! - The [`From`] trait is the most flexible, useful for value _and_ reference conversions
-//! - The [`TryFrom`] and [`TryInto`] traits behave like [`From`] and [`Into`], but allow for the
-//! conversion to fail
+//! - Implement the [`AsRef`] trait for cheap reference-to-reference conversions
+//! - Implement the [`AsMut`] trait for cheap mutable-to-mutable conversions
+//! - Implement the [`From`] trait for consuming value-to-value conversions
+//! - Implement the [`Into`] trait for consuming value-to-value conversions to types outside the current crate
+//! - The [`TryFrom`] and [`TryInto`] traits behave like [`From`] and [`Into`], but should be implemented when
+//! the conversion can fail.
//!
-//! As a library author, you should prefer implementing [`From<T>`][`From`] or
+//! The traits in this module are often used as trait bounds for generic functions such that to
+//! arguments of multiple types are supported. See the documentation of each trait for examples.
+//!
+//! As a library author, you should always prefer implementing [`From<T>`][`From`] or
//! [`TryFrom<T>`][`TryFrom`] rather than [`Into<U>`][`Into`] or [`TryInto<U>`][`TryInto`],
//! as [`From`] and [`TryFrom`] provide greater flexibility and offer
//! equivalent [`Into`] or [`TryInto`] implementations for free, thanks to a
-//! blanket implementation in the standard library. However, there are some cases
-//! where this is not possible, such as creating conversions into a type defined
-//! outside your library, so implementing [`Into`] instead of [`From`] is
-//! sometimes necessary.
+//! blanket implementation in the standard library. Only implement [`Into`] or [`TryInto`]
+//! when a conversion to a type outside the current crate is required.
//!
//! # Generic Implementations
//!
#[inline]
pub const fn identity<T>(x: T) -> T { x }
-/// A cheap reference-to-reference conversion. Used to convert a value to a
-/// reference value within generic code.
-///
-/// `AsRef` is very similar to, but serves a slightly different purpose than,
-/// [`Borrow`].
+/// Used to do a cheap reference-to-reference conversion.
+/// This trait is similar to [`AsMut`] which is used for converting between mutable references.
+/// If you need to do a costly conversion it is better to implement [`From`] with type
+/// ```&T``` or write a custom function.
///
-/// `AsRef` is to be used when wishing to convert to a reference of another
-/// type.
-/// `Borrow` is more related to the notion of taking the reference. It is
-/// useful when wishing to abstract over the type of reference
-/// (`&T`, `&mut T`) or allow both the referenced and owned type to be treated
-/// in the same manner.
-///
-/// The key difference between the two traits is the intention:
///
+/// `AsRef` is very similar to, but serves a slightly different purpose than [`Borrow`]:
/// - Use `AsRef` when the goal is to simply convert into a reference
/// - Use `Borrow` when the goal is related to writing code that is agnostic to
/// the type of borrow and whether it is a reference or value
///
/// [`Borrow`]: ../../std/borrow/trait.Borrow.html
///
-/// **Note: this trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use a
+/// **Note: This trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use a
/// dedicated method which returns an [`Option<T>`] or a [`Result<T, E>`].
///
/// [`Option<T>`]: ../../std/option/enum.Option.html
///
/// # Examples
///
-/// Both [`String`] and `&str` implement `AsRef<str>`:
+/// By using trait bounds we can accept arguments of different types as long as they can be
+/// converted a the specified type ```T```.
+/// For example: By creating a generic function that takes an ```AsRef<str>``` we express that we
+/// want to accept all references that can be converted to &str as an argument.
+/// Since both [`String`] and `&str` implement `AsRef<str>` we can accept both as input argument.
///
/// [`String`]: ../../std/string/struct.String.html
///
fn as_ref(&self) -> &T;
}
-/// A cheap, mutable reference-to-mutable reference conversion.
-///
-/// This trait is similar to `AsRef` but used for converting between mutable
-/// references.
+/// Used to do a cheap mutable-to-mutable reference conversion.
+/// This trait is similar to [`AsRef`] but used for converting between mutable
+/// references. If you need to do a costly conversion it is better to
+/// implement [`From`] with type ```&mut T``` or write a custom function.
///
-/// **Note: this trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use a
+/// **Note: This trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use a
/// dedicated method which returns an [`Option<T>`] or a [`Result<T, E>`].
///
/// [`Option<T>`]: ../../std/option/enum.Option.html
///
/// # Examples
///
-/// [`Box<T>`] implements `AsMut<T>`:
-///
-/// [`Box<T>`]: ../../std/boxed/struct.Box.html
-///
+/// Using ```AsMut``` as trait bound for a generic function we can accept all mutable references
+/// that can be converted to type ```&mut T```. Because [`Box<T>`] implements ```AsMut<T>``` we can
+/// write a function ```add_one```that takes all arguments that can be converted to ```&mut u64```.
+/// Because [`Box<T>`] implements ```AsMut<T>``` ```add_one``` accepts arguments of type
+/// ```&mut Box<u64>``` as well:
/// ```
/// fn add_one<T: AsMut<u64>>(num: &mut T) {
/// *num.as_mut() += 1;
/// add_one(&mut boxed_num);
/// assert_eq!(*boxed_num, 1);
/// ```
-///
+/// [`Box<T>`]: ../../std/boxed/struct.Box.html
///
#[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
pub trait AsMut<T: ?Sized> {
fn as_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T;
}
-/// A conversion that consumes `self`, which may or may not be expensive. The
-/// reciprocal of [`From`][From].
+/// A value-to-value conversion that consumes the input value. The
+/// opposite of [`From`].
///
-/// **Note: this trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use
-/// [`TryInto`] or a dedicated method which returns an [`Option<T>`] or a
-/// [`Result<T, E>`].
+/// One should only implement [`Into`] if a conversion to a type outside the current crate is required.
+/// Otherwise one should always prefer implementing [`From`] over [`Into`] because implementing [`From`] automatically
+/// provides one with a implementation of [`Into`] thanks to the blanket implementation in the standard library.
+/// [`From`] cannot do these type of conversions because of Rust's orphaning rules.
///
-/// Library authors should not directly implement this trait, but should prefer
-/// implementing the [`From`][From] trait, which offers greater flexibility and
-/// provides an equivalent `Into` implementation for free, thanks to a blanket
-/// implementation in the standard library.
+/// **Note: This trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use [`TryInto`].
///
/// # Generic Implementations
///
-/// - [`From<T>`][From]` for U` implies `Into<U> for T`
-/// - [`into`] is reflexive, which means that `Into<T> for T` is implemented
-///
-/// # Implementing `Into`
+/// - [`From<T>`]` for U` implies `Into<U> for T`
+/// - [`Into`]` is reflexive, which means that `Into<T> for T` is implemented
///
-/// There is one exception to implementing `Into`, and it's kind of esoteric.
-/// If the destination type is not part of the current crate, and it uses a
-/// generic variable, then you can't implement `From` directly. For example,
-/// take this crate:
+/// # Implementing `Into` for conversions to external types
+/// If the destination type is not part of the current crate then you can't implement [`From`] directly.
+/// For example, take this code:
///
/// ```compile_fail
/// struct Wrapper<T>(Vec<T>);
/// }
/// }
/// ```
-///
-/// To fix this, you can implement `Into` directly:
+/// This will fail to compile because we cannot implement a trait for a type
+/// if both the trait and the type are not defined by the current crate.
+/// This is due to Rust's orphaning rules. To bypass this, you can implement `Into` directly:
///
/// ```
/// struct Wrapper<T>(Vec<T>);
/// }
/// ```
///
-/// This won't always allow the conversion: for example, `try!` and `?`
-/// always use `From`. However, in most cases, people use `Into` to do the
-/// conversions, and this will allow that.
+/// It is important to understand that ```Into``` does not provide a [`From`] implementation (as [`From`] does with ```Into```).
+/// Therefore, you should always try to implement [`From`] and then fall back to `Into` if [`From`] can't be implemented.
+/// Prefer using ```Into``` over ```From``` when specifying trait bounds on a generic function
+/// to ensure that types that only implement ```Into``` can be used as well.
///
-/// In almost all cases, you should try to implement `From`, then fall back
-/// to `Into` if `From` can't be implemented.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// [`String`] implements `Into<Vec<u8>>`:
///
+/// In order to express that we want a generic function to take all arguments that can be
+/// converted to a specified type ```T```, we can use a trait bound of ```Into<T>```.
+/// For example: The function ```is_hello``` takes all arguments that can be converted into a
+/// ```Vec<u8>```.
+///
/// ```
/// fn is_hello<T: Into<Vec<u8>>>(s: T) {
/// let bytes = b"hello".to_vec();
fn into(self) -> T;
}
-/// Simple and safe type conversions in to `Self`. It is the reciprocal of
-/// `Into`.
+/// Used to do value-to-value conversions while consuming the input value. It is the reciprocal of
+/// [`Into`].
///
-/// This trait is useful when performing error handling as described by
-/// [the book][book] and is closely related to the `?` operator.
+/// One should always prefer implementing [`From`] over [`Into`] because implementing [`From`] automatically
+/// provides one with a implementation of [`Into`] thanks to the blanket implementation in the standard library.
+/// Only implement [`Into`] if a conversion to a type outside the current crate is required.
+/// [`From`] cannot do these type of conversions because of Rust's orphaning rules.
+/// See [`Into`] for more details.
///
-/// When constructing a function that is capable of failing the return type
-/// will generally be of the form `Result<T, E>`.
-///
-/// The `From` trait allows for simplification of error handling by providing a
-/// means of returning a single error type that encapsulates numerous possible
-/// erroneous situations.
+/// Prefer using [`Into`] over using [`From`] when specifying trait bounds on a generic function.
+/// This way, types that directly implement [`Into`] can be used as arguments as well.
///
-/// This trait is not limited to error handling, rather the general case for
-/// this trait would be in any type conversions to have an explicit definition
-/// of how they are performed.
+/// The [`From`] is also very useful when performing error handling.
+/// When constructing a function that is capable of failing, the return type
+/// will generally be of the form `Result<T, E>`.
+/// The `From` trait simplifies error handling by allowing a function to return a single error type
+/// that encapsulate multiple error types. See the "Examples" section for more details.
///
-/// **Note: this trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use
-/// [`TryFrom`] or a dedicated method which returns an [`Option<T>`] or a
-/// [`Result<T, E>`].
+/// **Note: This trait must not fail**. If the conversion can fail, use [`TryFrom`].
///
/// # Generic Implementations
///
-/// - `From<T> for U` implies [`Into<U>`]` for T`
-/// - [`from`] is reflexive, which means that `From<T> for T` is implemented
+/// - [`From<T>`]` for U` implies [`Into<U>`]` for T`
+/// - [`From`] is reflexive, which means that `From<T> for T` is implemented
///
/// # Examples
///
/// [`String`] implements `From<&str>`:
///
+/// An explicit conversion from a &str to a String is done as follows:
/// ```
/// let string = "hello".to_string();
/// let other_string = String::from("hello");
/// assert_eq!(string, other_string);
/// ```
///
-/// An example usage for error handling:
+/// While performing error handling it is often useful to implement ```From``` for your own error type.
+/// By converting underlying error types to our own custom error type that encapsulates the underlying
+/// error type, we can return a single error type without losing information on the underlying cause.
+/// The '?' operator automatically converts the underlying error type to our custom error type by
+/// calling ```Into<CliError>::into``` which is automatically provided when implementing ```From```.
+/// The compiler then infers which implementation of ```Into``` should be used.
///
/// ```
/// use std::fs;
/// [`String`]: ../../std/string/struct.String.html
/// [`Into<U>`]: trait.Into.html
/// [`from`]: trait.From.html#tymethod.from
-/// [book]: ../../book/ch09-00-error-handling.html
+/// [book]: ../../book/first-edition/error-handling.html
#[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
pub trait From<T>: Sized {
/// Performs the conversion.
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