1 // Copyright 2012-2015 The Rust Project Developers. See the COPYRIGHT
2 // file at the top-level directory of this distribution and at
3 // http://rust-lang.org/COPYRIGHT.
5 // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 <LICENSE-APACHE or
6 // http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0> or the MIT license
7 // <LICENSE-MIT or http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT>, at your
8 // option. This file may not be copied, modified, or distributed
9 // except according to those terms.
11 //! Primitive traits and marker types representing basic 'kinds' of types.
13 //! Rust types can be classified in various useful ways according to
14 //! intrinsic properties of the type. These classifications, often called
15 //! 'kinds', are represented as traits.
17 #![stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
26 /// Types that can be transferred across thread boundaries.
28 /// This trait is automatically derived when the compiler determines it's appropriate.
29 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
31 #[rustc_on_unimplemented = "`{Self}` cannot be sent between threads safely"]
32 pub unsafe trait Send {
36 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
37 unsafe impl Send for .. { }
39 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
40 impl<T: ?Sized> !Send for *const T { }
41 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
42 impl<T: ?Sized> !Send for *mut T { }
44 /// Types with a constant size known at compile-time.
46 /// All type parameters which can be bounded have an implicit bound of `Sized`. The special syntax
47 /// `?Sized` can be used to remove this bound if it is not appropriate.
50 /// # #![allow(dead_code)]
52 /// struct Bar<T: ?Sized>(T);
54 /// // struct FooUse(Foo<[i32]>); // error: Sized is not implemented for [i32]
55 /// struct BarUse(Bar<[i32]>); // OK
57 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
59 #[rustc_on_unimplemented = "`{Self}` does not have a constant size known at compile-time"]
60 #[fundamental] // for Default, for example, which requires that `[T]: !Default` be evaluatable
65 /// Types that can be "unsized" to a dynamically sized type.
66 #[unstable(feature = "unsize", issue = "27732")]
68 pub trait Unsize<T: ?Sized> {
72 /// Types that can be copied by simply copying bits (i.e. `memcpy`).
74 /// By default, variable bindings have 'move semantics.' In other
85 /// // `x` has moved into `y`, and so cannot be used
87 /// // println!("{:?}", x); // error: use of moved value
90 /// However, if a type implements `Copy`, it instead has 'copy semantics':
93 /// // we can just derive a `Copy` implementation
94 /// #[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
101 /// // `y` is a copy of `x`
103 /// println!("{:?}", x); // A-OK!
106 /// It's important to note that in these two examples, the only difference is if you are allowed to
107 /// access `x` after the assignment: a move is also a bitwise copy under the hood.
109 /// ## When can my type be `Copy`?
111 /// A type can implement `Copy` if all of its components implement `Copy`. For example, this
112 /// `struct` can be `Copy`:
115 /// # #[allow(dead_code)]
122 /// A `struct` can be `Copy`, and `i32` is `Copy`, so therefore, `Point` is eligible to be `Copy`.
125 /// # #![allow(dead_code)]
127 /// struct PointList {
128 /// points: Vec<Point>,
132 /// The `PointList` `struct` cannot implement `Copy`, because `Vec<T>` is not `Copy`. If we
133 /// attempt to derive a `Copy` implementation, we'll get an error:
136 /// the trait `Copy` may not be implemented for this type; field `points` does not implement `Copy`
139 /// ## How can I implement `Copy`?
141 /// There are two ways to implement `Copy` on your type:
144 /// #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
152 /// impl Copy for MyStruct {}
153 /// impl Clone for MyStruct { fn clone(&self) -> MyStruct { *self } }
156 /// There is a small difference between the two: the `derive` strategy will also place a `Copy`
157 /// bound on type parameters, which isn't always desired.
159 /// ## When can my type _not_ be `Copy`?
161 /// Some types can't be copied safely. For example, copying `&mut T` would create an aliased
162 /// mutable reference, and copying `String` would result in two attempts to free the same buffer.
164 /// Generalizing the latter case, any type implementing `Drop` can't be `Copy`, because it's
165 /// managing some resource besides its own `size_of::<T>()` bytes.
167 /// ## When should my type be `Copy`?
169 /// Generally speaking, if your type _can_ implement `Copy`, it should. There's one important thing
170 /// to consider though: if you think your type may _not_ be able to implement `Copy` in the future,
171 /// then it might be prudent to not implement `Copy`. This is because removing `Copy` is a breaking
172 /// change: that second example would fail to compile if we made `Foo` non-`Copy`.
176 /// This trait can be used with `#[derive]`.
177 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
179 pub trait Copy : Clone {
183 /// Types that can be safely shared between threads when aliased.
185 /// The precise definition is: a type `T` is `Sync` if `&T` is
186 /// thread-safe. In other words, there is no possibility of data races
187 /// when passing `&T` references between threads.
189 /// As one would expect, primitive types like `u8` and `f64` are all
190 /// `Sync`, and so are simple aggregate types containing them (like
191 /// tuples, structs and enums). More instances of basic `Sync` types
192 /// include "immutable" types like `&T` and those with simple
193 /// inherited mutability, such as `Box<T>`, `Vec<T>` and most other
194 /// collection types. (Generic parameters need to be `Sync` for their
195 /// container to be `Sync`.)
197 /// A somewhat surprising consequence of the definition is `&mut T` is
198 /// `Sync` (if `T` is `Sync`) even though it seems that it might
199 /// provide unsynchronized mutation. The trick is a mutable reference
200 /// stored in an aliasable reference (that is, `& &mut T`) becomes
201 /// read-only, as if it were a `& &T`, hence there is no risk of a data
204 /// Types that are not `Sync` are those that have "interior
205 /// mutability" in a non-thread-safe way, such as `Cell` and `RefCell`
206 /// in `std::cell`. These types allow for mutation of their contents
207 /// even when in an immutable, aliasable slot, e.g. the contents of
208 /// `&Cell<T>` can be `.set`, and do not ensure data races are
209 /// impossible, hence they cannot be `Sync`. A higher level example
210 /// of a non-`Sync` type is the reference counted pointer
211 /// `std::rc::Rc`, because any reference `&Rc<T>` can clone a new
212 /// reference, which modifies the reference counts in a non-atomic
215 /// For cases when one does need thread-safe interior mutability,
216 /// types like the atomics in `std::sync` and `Mutex` & `RWLock` in
217 /// the `sync` crate do ensure that any mutation cannot cause data
218 /// races. Hence these types are `Sync`.
220 /// Any types with interior mutability must also use the `std::cell::UnsafeCell`
221 /// wrapper around the value(s) which can be mutated when behind a `&`
222 /// reference; not doing this is undefined behavior (for example,
223 /// `transmute`-ing from `&T` to `&mut T` is invalid).
225 /// This trait is automatically derived when the compiler determines it's appropriate.
226 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
228 #[rustc_on_unimplemented = "`{Self}` cannot be shared between threads safely"]
229 pub unsafe trait Sync {
233 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
234 unsafe impl Sync for .. { }
236 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
237 impl<T: ?Sized> !Sync for *const T { }
238 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
239 impl<T: ?Sized> !Sync for *mut T { }
243 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
244 impl<T:?Sized> Hash for $t<T> {
246 fn hash<H: Hasher>(&self, _: &mut H) {
250 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
251 impl<T:?Sized> cmp::PartialEq for $t<T> {
252 fn eq(&self, _other: &$t<T>) -> bool {
257 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
258 impl<T:?Sized> cmp::Eq for $t<T> {
261 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
262 impl<T:?Sized> cmp::PartialOrd for $t<T> {
263 fn partial_cmp(&self, _other: &$t<T>) -> Option<cmp::Ordering> {
264 Option::Some(cmp::Ordering::Equal)
268 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
269 impl<T:?Sized> cmp::Ord for $t<T> {
270 fn cmp(&self, _other: &$t<T>) -> cmp::Ordering {
275 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
276 impl<T:?Sized> Copy for $t<T> { }
278 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
279 impl<T:?Sized> Clone for $t<T> {
280 fn clone(&self) -> $t<T> {
285 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
286 impl<T:?Sized> Default for $t<T> {
287 fn default() -> $t<T> {
294 /// `PhantomData<T>` allows you to describe that a type acts as if it stores a value of type `T`,
295 /// even though it does not. This allows you to inform the compiler about certain safety properties
298 /// For a more in-depth explanation of how to use `PhantomData<T>`, please see [the Nomicon].
300 /// [the Nomicon]: ../../nomicon/phantom-data.html
302 /// # A ghastly note 👻👻👻
304 /// Though they both have scary names, `PhantomData<T>` and 'phantom types' are related, but not
305 /// identical. Phantom types are a more general concept that don't require `PhantomData<T>` to
306 /// implement, but `PhantomData<T>` is the most common way to implement them in a correct manner.
310 /// ## Unused lifetime parameter
312 /// Perhaps the most common time that `PhantomData` is required is
313 /// with a struct that has an unused lifetime parameter, typically as
314 /// part of some unsafe code. For example, here is a struct `Slice`
315 /// that has two pointers of type `*const T`, presumably pointing into
316 /// an array somewhere:
319 /// struct Slice<'a, T> {
325 /// The intention is that the underlying data is only valid for the
326 /// lifetime `'a`, so `Slice` should not outlive `'a`. However, this
327 /// intent is not expressed in the code, since there are no uses of
328 /// the lifetime `'a` and hence it is not clear what data it applies
329 /// to. We can correct this by telling the compiler to act *as if* the
330 /// `Slice` struct contained a borrowed reference `&'a T`:
333 /// use std::marker::PhantomData;
335 /// # #[allow(dead_code)]
336 /// struct Slice<'a, T: 'a> {
339 /// phantom: PhantomData<&'a T>
343 /// This also in turn requires that we annotate `T:'a`, indicating
344 /// that `T` is a type that can be borrowed for the lifetime `'a`.
346 /// ## Unused type parameters
348 /// It sometimes happens that there are unused type parameters that
349 /// indicate what type of data a struct is "tied" to, even though that
350 /// data is not actually found in the struct itself. Here is an
351 /// example where this arises when handling external resources over a
352 /// foreign function interface. `PhantomData<T>` can prevent
353 /// mismatches by enforcing types in the method implementations:
356 /// # #![allow(dead_code)]
357 /// # trait ResType { fn foo(&self); }
358 /// # struct ParamType;
359 /// # mod foreign_lib {
360 /// # pub fn new(_: usize) -> *mut () { 42 as *mut () }
361 /// # pub fn do_stuff(_: *mut (), _: usize) {}
363 /// # fn convert_params(_: ParamType) -> usize { 42 }
364 /// use std::marker::PhantomData;
367 /// struct ExternalResource<R> {
368 /// resource_handle: *mut (),
369 /// resource_type: PhantomData<R>,
372 /// impl<R: ResType> ExternalResource<R> {
373 /// fn new() -> ExternalResource<R> {
374 /// let size_of_res = mem::size_of::<R>();
375 /// ExternalResource {
376 /// resource_handle: foreign_lib::new(size_of_res),
377 /// resource_type: PhantomData,
381 /// fn do_stuff(&self, param: ParamType) {
382 /// let foreign_params = convert_params(param);
383 /// foreign_lib::do_stuff(self.resource_handle, foreign_params);
388 /// ## Indicating ownership
390 /// Adding a field of type `PhantomData<T>` also indicates that your
391 /// struct owns data of type `T`. This in turn implies that when your
392 /// struct is dropped, it may in turn drop one or more instances of
393 /// the type `T`, though that may not be apparent from the other
394 /// structure of the type itself. This is commonly necessary if the
395 /// structure is using a raw pointer like `*mut T` whose referent
396 /// may be dropped when the type is dropped, as a `*mut T` is
397 /// otherwise not treated as owned.
399 /// If your struct does not in fact *own* the data of type `T`, it is
400 /// better to use a reference type, like `PhantomData<&'a T>`
401 /// (ideally) or `PhantomData<*const T>` (if no lifetime applies), so
402 /// as not to indicate ownership.
403 #[lang = "phantom_data"]
404 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
405 pub struct PhantomData<T:?Sized>;
407 impls! { PhantomData }
410 use super::{Send, Sync, Sized};
412 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
413 unsafe impl<'a, T: Sync + ?Sized> Send for &'a T {}
414 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
415 unsafe impl<'a, T: Send + ?Sized> Send for &'a mut T {}
418 /// Types that can be reflected over.
420 /// This trait is implemented for all types. Its purpose is to ensure
421 /// that when you write a generic function that will employ
422 /// reflection, that must be reflected (no pun intended) in the
423 /// generic bounds of that function. Here is an example:
426 /// #![feature(reflect_marker)]
427 /// use std::marker::Reflect;
428 /// use std::any::Any;
430 /// # #[allow(dead_code)]
431 /// fn foo<T: Reflect + 'static>(x: &T) {
432 /// let any: &Any = x;
433 /// if any.is::<u32>() { println!("u32"); }
437 /// Without the declaration `T: Reflect`, `foo` would not type check
438 /// (note: as a matter of style, it would be preferable to write
439 /// `T: Any`, because `T: Any` implies `T: Reflect` and `T: 'static`, but
440 /// we use `Reflect` here to show how it works). The `Reflect` bound
441 /// thus serves to alert `foo`'s caller to the fact that `foo` may
442 /// behave differently depending on whether `T = u32` or not. In
443 /// particular, thanks to the `Reflect` bound, callers know that a
444 /// function declared like `fn bar<T>(...)` will always act in
445 /// precisely the same way no matter what type `T` is supplied,
446 /// because there are no bounds declared on `T`. (The ability for a
447 /// caller to reason about what a function may do based solely on what
448 /// generic bounds are declared is often called the ["parametricity
451 /// [1]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametricity
452 #[rustc_reflect_like]
453 #[unstable(feature = "reflect_marker",
454 reason = "requires RFC and more experience",
456 #[rustc_on_unimplemented = "`{Self}` does not implement `Any`; \
457 ensure all type parameters are bounded by `Any`"]
460 #[unstable(feature = "reflect_marker",
461 reason = "requires RFC and more experience",
463 impl Reflect for .. { }