3 By now you’ve learned about many of the tools Rust provides for abstracting and
4 reusing code. These units of code reuse have a rich semantic structure. For
5 example, functions have a type signature, type parameters have trait bounds,
6 and overloaded functions must belong to a particular trait.
8 This structure means that Rust’s core abstractions have powerful compile-time
9 correctness checking. But this comes at the price of reduced flexibility. If
10 you visually identify a pattern of repeated code, you may find it’s difficult
11 or cumbersome to express that pattern as a generic function, a trait, or
12 anything else within Rust’s semantics.
14 Macros allow us to abstract at a syntactic level. A macro invocation is
15 shorthand for an "expanded" syntactic form. This expansion happens early in
16 compilation, before any static checking. As a result, macros can capture many
17 patterns of code reuse that Rust’s core abstractions cannot.
19 The drawback is that macro-based code can be harder to understand, because
20 fewer of the built-in rules apply. Like an ordinary function, a well-behaved
21 macro can be used without understanding its implementation. However, it can be
22 difficult to design a well-behaved macro! Additionally, compiler errors in
23 macro code are harder to interpret, because they describe problems in the
24 expanded code, not the source-level form that developers use.
26 These drawbacks make macros something of a "feature of last resort". That’s not
27 to say that macros are bad; they are part of Rust because sometimes they’re
28 needed for truly concise, well-abstracted code. Just keep this tradeoff in
33 You may have seen the `vec!` macro, used to initialize a [vector][] with any
36 [vector]: vectors.html
39 let x: Vec<u32> = vec![1, 2, 3];
40 # assert_eq!(x, [1, 2, 3]);
43 This can’t be an ordinary function, because it takes any number of arguments.
44 But we can imagine it as syntactic shorthand for
48 let mut temp_vec = Vec::new();
54 # assert_eq!(x, [1, 2, 3]);
57 We can implement this shorthand, using a macro: [^actual]
59 [^actual]: The actual definition of `vec!` in libcollections differs from the
60 one presented here, for reasons of efficiency and reusability.
64 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => {
66 let mut temp_vec = Vec::new();
75 # assert_eq!(vec![1,2,3], [1, 2, 3]);
79 Whoa, that’s a lot of new syntax! Let’s break it down.
82 macro_rules! vec { ... }
85 This says we’re defining a macro named `vec`, much as `fn vec` would define a
86 function named `vec`. In prose, we informally write a macro’s name with an
87 exclamation point, e.g. `vec!`. The exclamation point is part of the invocation
88 syntax and serves to distinguish a macro from an ordinary function.
92 The macro is defined through a series of rules, which are pattern-matching
96 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { ... };
99 This is like a `match` expression arm, but the matching happens on Rust syntax
100 trees, at compile time. The semicolon is optional on the last (here, only)
101 case. The "pattern" on the left-hand side of `=>` is known as a ‘matcher’.
102 These have [their own little grammar] within the language.
104 [their own little grammar]: ../reference.html#macros
106 The matcher `$x:expr` will match any Rust expression, binding that syntax tree
107 to the ‘metavariable’ `$x`. The identifier `expr` is a ‘fragment specifier’;
108 the full possibilities are enumerated later in this chapter.
109 Surrounding the matcher with `$(...),*` will match zero or more expressions,
112 Aside from the special matcher syntax, any Rust tokens that appear in a matcher
113 must match exactly. For example,
117 (x => $e:expr) => (println!("mode X: {}", $e));
118 (y => $e:expr) => (println!("mode Y: {}", $e));
138 we get the compiler error
141 error: no rules expected the token `z`
146 The right-hand side of a macro rule is ordinary Rust syntax, for the most part.
147 But we can splice in bits of syntax captured by the matcher. From the original
156 Each matched expression `$x` will produce a single `push` statement in the
157 macro expansion. The repetition in the expansion proceeds in "lockstep" with
158 repetition in the matcher (more on this in a moment).
160 Because `$x` was already declared as matching an expression, we don’t repeat
161 `:expr` on the right-hand side. Also, we don’t include a separating comma as
162 part of the repetition operator. Instead, we have a terminating semicolon
163 within the repeated block.
165 Another detail: the `vec!` macro has *two* pairs of braces on the right-hand
166 side. They are often combined like so:
176 The outer braces are part of the syntax of `macro_rules!`. In fact, you can use
177 `()` or `[]` instead. They simply delimit the right-hand side as a whole.
179 The inner braces are part of the expanded syntax. Remember, the `vec!` macro is
180 used in an expression context. To write an expression with multiple statements,
181 including `let`-bindings, we use a block. If your macro expands to a single
182 expression, you don’t need this extra layer of braces.
184 Note that we never *declared* that the macro produces an expression. In fact,
185 this is not determined until we use the macro as an expression. With care, you
186 can write a macro whose expansion works in several contexts. For example,
187 shorthand for a data type could be valid as either an expression or a pattern.
191 The repetition operator follows two principal rules:
193 1. `$(...)*` walks through one "layer" of repetitions, for all of the `$name`s
194 it contains, in lockstep, and
195 2. each `$name` must be under at least as many `$(...)*`s as it was matched
196 against. If it is under more, it’ll be duplicated, as appropriate.
198 This baroque macro illustrates the duplication of variables from outer
205 $x:expr; [ $( $y:expr ),* ]
208 &[ $($( $x + $y ),*),* ]
214 = o_O!(10; [1, 2, 3];
217 assert_eq!(a, [11, 12, 13, 24, 25, 26]);
221 That’s most of the matcher syntax. These examples use `$(...)*`, which is a
222 "zero or more" match. Alternatively you can write `$(...)+` for a "one or
223 more" match. Both forms optionally include a separator, which can be any token
226 This system is based on
227 "[Macro-by-Example](http://www.cs.indiana.edu/ftp/techreports/TR206.pdf)"
232 Some languages implement macros using simple text substitution, which leads to
233 various problems. For example, this C program prints `13` instead of the
237 #define FIVE_TIMES(x) 5 * x
240 printf("%d\n", FIVE_TIMES(2 + 3));
245 After expansion we have `5 * 2 + 3`, and multiplication has greater precedence
246 than addition. If you’ve used C macros a lot, you probably know the standard
247 idioms for avoiding this problem, as well as five or six others. In Rust, we
248 don’t have to worry about it.
251 macro_rules! five_times {
252 ($x:expr) => (5 * $x);
256 assert_eq!(25, five_times!(2 + 3));
260 The metavariable `$x` is parsed as a single expression node, and keeps its
261 place in the syntax tree even after substitution.
263 Another common problem in macro systems is ‘variable capture’. Here’s a C
264 macro, using [a GNU C extension] to emulate Rust’s expression blocks.
266 [a GNU C extension]: https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Statement-Exprs.html
269 #define LOG(msg) ({ \
270 int state = get_log_state(); \
272 printf("log(%d): %s\n", state, msg); \
277 Here’s a simple use case that goes terribly wrong:
280 const char *state = "reticulating splines";
287 const char *state = "reticulating splines";
288 int state = get_log_state();
290 printf("log(%d): %s\n", state, state);
294 The second variable named `state` shadows the first one. This is a problem
295 because the print statement should refer to both of them.
297 The equivalent Rust macro has the desired behavior.
300 # fn get_log_state() -> i32 { 3 }
303 let state: i32 = get_log_state();
305 println!("log({}): {}", state, $msg);
311 let state: &str = "reticulating splines";
316 This works because Rust has a [hygienic macro system][]. Each macro expansion
317 happens in a distinct ‘syntax context’, and each variable is tagged with the
318 syntax context where it was introduced. It’s as though the variable `state`
319 inside `main` is painted a different "color" from the variable `state` inside
320 the macro, and therefore they don’t conflict.
322 [hygienic macro system]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienic_macro
324 This also restricts the ability of macros to introduce new bindings at the
325 invocation site. Code such as the following will not work:
338 Instead you need to pass the variable name into the invocation, so it’s tagged
339 with the right syntax context.
343 ($v:ident) => (let $v = 3);
352 This holds for `let` bindings and loop labels, but not for [items][].
353 So the following code does compile:
366 [items]: ../reference.html#items
370 A macro’s expansion can include more macro invocations, including invocations
371 of the very same macro being expanded. These recursive macros are useful for
372 processing tree-structured input, as illustrated by this (simplistic) HTML
376 # #![allow(unused_must_use)]
377 macro_rules! write_html {
380 ($w:expr, $e:tt) => (write!($w, "{}", $e));
382 ($w:expr, $tag:ident [ $($inner:tt)* ] $($rest:tt)*) => {{
383 write!($w, "<{}>", stringify!($tag));
384 write_html!($w, $($inner)*);
385 write!($w, "</{}>", stringify!($tag));
386 write_html!($w, $($rest)*);
393 let mut out = String::new();
395 write_html!(&mut out,
397 head[title["Macros guide"]]
398 body[h1["Macros are the best!"]]
402 "<html><head><title>Macros guide</title></head>\
403 <body><h1>Macros are the best!</h1></body></html>");
407 # Debugging macro code
409 To see the results of expanding macros, run `rustc --pretty expanded`. The
410 output represents a whole crate, so you can also feed it back in to `rustc`,
411 which will sometimes produce better error messages than the original
412 compilation. Note that the `--pretty expanded` output may have a different
413 meaning if multiple variables of the same name (but different syntax contexts)
414 are in play in the same scope. In this case `--pretty expanded,hygiene` will
415 tell you about the syntax contexts.
417 `rustc` provides two syntax extensions that help with macro debugging. For now,
418 they are unstable and require feature gates.
420 * `log_syntax!(...)` will print its arguments to standard output, at compile
421 time, and "expand" to nothing.
423 * `trace_macros!(true)` will enable a compiler message every time a macro is
424 expanded. Use `trace_macros!(false)` later in expansion to turn it off.
426 # Syntactic requirements
428 Even when Rust code contains un-expanded macros, it can be parsed as a full
429 [syntax tree][ast]. This property can be very useful for editors and other
430 tools that process code. It also has a few consequences for the design of
433 [ast]: glossary.html#abstract-syntax-tree
435 One consequence is that Rust must determine, when it parses a macro invocation,
436 whether the macro stands in for
438 * zero or more items,
439 * zero or more methods,
444 A macro invocation within a block could stand for some items, or for an
445 expression / statement. Rust uses a simple rule to resolve this ambiguity. A
446 macro invocation that stands for items must be either
448 * delimited by curly braces, e.g. `foo! { ... }`, or
449 * terminated by a semicolon, e.g. `foo!(...);`
451 Another consequence of pre-expansion parsing is that the macro invocation must
452 consist of valid Rust tokens. Furthermore, parentheses, brackets, and braces
453 must be balanced within a macro invocation. For example, `foo!([)` is
454 forbidden. This allows Rust to know where the macro invocation ends.
456 More formally, the macro invocation body must be a sequence of ‘token trees’.
457 A token tree is defined recursively as either
459 * a sequence of token trees surrounded by matching `()`, `[]`, or `{}`, or
460 * any other single token.
462 Within a matcher, each metavariable has a ‘fragment specifier’, identifying
463 which syntactic form it matches.
465 * `ident`: an identifier. Examples: `x`; `foo`.
466 * `path`: a qualified name. Example: `T::SpecialA`.
467 * `expr`: an expression. Examples: `2 + 2`; `if true then { 1 } else { 2 }`; `f(42)`.
468 * `ty`: a type. Examples: `i32`; `Vec<(char, String)>`; `&T`.
469 * `pat`: a pattern. Examples: `Some(t)`; `(17, 'a')`; `_`.
470 * `stmt`: a single statement. Example: `let x = 3`.
471 * `block`: a brace-delimited sequence of statements. Example:
472 `{ log(error, "hi"); return 12; }`.
473 * `item`: an [item][]. Examples: `fn foo() { }`; `struct Bar;`.
474 * `meta`: a "meta item", as found in attributes. Example: `cfg(target_os = "windows")`.
475 * `tt`: a single token tree.
477 There are additional rules regarding the next token after a metavariable:
479 * `expr` variables must be followed by one of: `=> , ;`
480 * `ty` and `path` variables must be followed by one of: `=> , : = > as`
481 * `pat` variables must be followed by one of: `=> , =`
482 * Other variables may be followed by any token.
484 These rules provide some flexibility for Rust’s syntax to evolve without
485 breaking existing macros.
487 The macro system does not deal with parse ambiguity at all. For example, the
488 grammar `$($t:ty)* $e:expr` will always fail to parse, because the parser would
489 be forced to choose between parsing `$t` and parsing `$e`. Changing the
490 invocation syntax to put a distinctive token in front can solve the problem. In
491 this case, you can write `$(T $t:ty)* E $e:exp`.
493 [item]: ../reference.html#items
495 # Scoping and macro import/export
497 Macros are expanded at an early stage in compilation, before name resolution.
498 One downside is that scoping works differently for macros, compared to other
499 constructs in the language.
501 Definition and expansion of macros both happen in a single depth-first,
502 lexical-order traversal of a crate’s source. So a macro defined at module scope
503 is visible to any subsequent code in the same module, which includes the body
504 of any subsequent child `mod` items.
506 A macro defined within the body of a single `fn`, or anywhere else not at
507 module scope, is visible only within that item.
509 If a module has the `macro_use` attribute, its macros are also visible in its
510 parent module after the child’s `mod` item. If the parent also has `macro_use`
511 then the macros will be visible in the grandparent after the parent’s `mod`
514 The `macro_use` attribute can also appear on `extern crate`. In this context
515 it controls which macros are loaded from the external crate, e.g.
518 #[macro_use(foo, bar)]
522 If the attribute is given simply as `#[macro_use]`, all macros are loaded. If
523 there is no `#[macro_use]` attribute then no macros are loaded. Only macros
524 defined with the `#[macro_export]` attribute may be loaded.
526 To load a crate’s macros without linking it into the output, use `#[no_link]`
532 macro_rules! m1 { () => (()) }
540 macro_rules! m2 { () => (()) }
542 // visible here: m1, m2
547 macro_rules! m3 { () => (()) }
549 // visible here: m1, m3
553 // visible here: m1, m3
555 macro_rules! m4 { () => (()) }
557 // visible here: m1, m3, m4
560 // visible here: m1, m3, m4
564 When this library is loaded with `#[macro_use] extern crate`, only `m2` will
567 The Rust Reference has a [listing of macro-related
568 attributes](../reference.html#macro-related-attributes).
570 # The variable `$crate`
572 A further difficulty occurs when a macro is used in multiple crates. Say that
576 pub fn increment(x: u32) -> u32 {
582 ($x:expr) => ( ::increment($x) )
587 ($x:expr) => ( ::mylib::increment($x) )
592 `inc_a` only works within `mylib`, while `inc_b` only works outside the
593 library. Furthermore, `inc_b` will break if the user imports `mylib` under
596 Rust does not (yet) have a hygiene system for crate references, but it does
597 provide a simple workaround for this problem. Within a macro imported from a
598 crate named `foo`, the special macro variable `$crate` will expand to `::foo`.
599 By contrast, when a macro is defined and then used in the same crate, `$crate`
600 will expand to nothing. This means we can write
605 ($x:expr) => ( $crate::increment($x) )
610 to define a single macro that works both inside and outside our library. The
611 function name will expand to either `::increment` or `::mylib::increment`.
613 To keep this system simple and correct, `#[macro_use] extern crate ...` may
614 only appear at the root of your crate, not inside `mod`. This ensures that
615 `$crate` is a single identifier.
619 The introductory chapter mentioned recursive macros, but it did not give the
620 full story. Recursive macros are useful for another reason: Each recursive
621 invocation gives you another opportunity to pattern-match the macro’s
624 As an extreme example, it is possible, though hardly advisable, to implement
625 the [Bitwise Cyclic Tag](http://esolangs.org/wiki/Bitwise_Cyclic_Tag) automaton
626 within Rust’s macro system.
630 // cmd 0: d ... => ...
631 (0, $($ps:tt),* ; $_d:tt)
632 => (bct!($($ps),*, 0 ; ));
633 (0, $($ps:tt),* ; $_d:tt, $($ds:tt),*)
634 => (bct!($($ps),*, 0 ; $($ds),*));
636 // cmd 1p: 1 ... => 1 ... p
637 (1, $p:tt, $($ps:tt),* ; 1)
638 => (bct!($($ps),*, 1, $p ; 1, $p));
639 (1, $p:tt, $($ps:tt),* ; 1, $($ds:tt),*)
640 => (bct!($($ps),*, 1, $p ; 1, $($ds),*, $p));
642 // cmd 1p: 0 ... => 0 ...
643 (1, $p:tt, $($ps:tt),* ; $($ds:tt),*)
644 => (bct!($($ps),*, 1, $p ; $($ds),*));
646 // halt on empty data string
652 Exercise: use macros to reduce duplication in the above definition of the
657 Here are some common macros you’ll see in Rust code.
661 This macro causes the current thread to panic. You can give it a message
670 The `vec!` macro is used throughout the book, so you’ve probably seen it
671 already. It creates `Vec<T>`s with ease:
674 let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
677 It also lets you make vectors with repeating values. For example, a hundred
681 let v = vec![0; 100];
684 ## assert! and assert_eq!
686 These two macros are used in tests. `assert!` takes a boolean, and `assert_eq!`
687 takes two values and compares them. Truth passes, success `panic!`s. Like
694 assert_eq!(5, 3 + 2);
703 `try!` is used for error handling. It takes something that can return a
704 `Result<T, E>`, and gives `T` if it’s a `Ok<T>`, and `return`s with the
705 `Err(E)` if it’s that. Like this:
710 fn foo() -> std::io::Result<()> {
711 let f = try!(File::create("foo.txt"));
717 This is cleaner than doing this:
722 fn foo() -> std::io::Result<()> {
723 let f = File::create("foo.txt");
727 Err(e) => return Err(e),
736 This macro is used when you think some code should never execute:
744 Sometimes, the compiler may make you have a different branch that you know
745 will never, ever run. In these cases, use this macro, so that if you end
746 up wrong, you’ll get a `panic!` about it.
749 let x: Option<i32> = None;
752 Some(_) => unreachable!(),
753 None => println!("I know x is None!"),
759 The `unimplemented!` macro can be used when you’re trying to get your functions
760 to typecheck, and don’t want to worry about writing out the body of the
761 function. One example of this situation is implementing a trait with multiple
762 required methods, where you want to tackle one at a time. Define the others
763 as `unimplemented!` until you’re ready to write them.
767 If Rust’s macro system can’t do what you need, you may want to write a
768 [compiler plugin](compiler-plugins.html) instead. Compared to `macro_rules!`
769 macros, this is significantly more work, the interfaces are much less stable,
770 and bugs can be much harder to track down. In exchange you get the
771 flexibility of running arbitrary Rust code within the compiler. Syntax
772 extension plugins are sometimes called ‘procedural macros’ for this reason.