1 //! Basic functions for dealing with memory.
3 //! This module contains functions for querying the size and alignment of
4 //! types, initializing and manipulating memory.
6 #![stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
12 use crate::intrinsics;
13 use crate::marker::{Copy, DiscriminantKind, Sized};
17 #[stable(feature = "manually_drop", since = "1.20.0")]
18 pub use manually_drop::ManuallyDrop;
21 #[stable(feature = "maybe_uninit", since = "1.36.0")]
22 pub use maybe_uninit::MaybeUninit;
25 #[unstable(feature = "transmutability", issue = "99571")]
26 pub use transmutability::{Assume, BikeshedIntrinsicFrom};
28 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
30 pub use crate::intrinsics::transmute;
32 /// Takes ownership and "forgets" about the value **without running its destructor**.
34 /// Any resources the value manages, such as heap memory or a file handle, will linger
35 /// forever in an unreachable state. However, it does not guarantee that pointers
36 /// to this memory will remain valid.
38 /// * If you want to leak memory, see [`Box::leak`].
39 /// * If you want to obtain a raw pointer to the memory, see [`Box::into_raw`].
40 /// * If you want to dispose of a value properly, running its destructor, see
45 /// `forget` is not marked as `unsafe`, because Rust's safety guarantees
46 /// do not include a guarantee that destructors will always run. For example,
47 /// a program can create a reference cycle using [`Rc`][rc], or call
48 /// [`process::exit`][exit] to exit without running destructors. Thus, allowing
49 /// `mem::forget` from safe code does not fundamentally change Rust's safety
52 /// That said, leaking resources such as memory or I/O objects is usually undesirable.
53 /// The need comes up in some specialized use cases for FFI or unsafe code, but even
54 /// then, [`ManuallyDrop`] is typically preferred.
56 /// Because forgetting a value is allowed, any `unsafe` code you write must
57 /// allow for this possibility. You cannot return a value and expect that the
58 /// caller will necessarily run the value's destructor.
60 /// [rc]: ../../std/rc/struct.Rc.html
61 /// [exit]: ../../std/process/fn.exit.html
65 /// The canonical safe use of `mem::forget` is to circumvent a value's destructor
66 /// implemented by the `Drop` trait. For example, this will leak a `File`, i.e. reclaim
67 /// the space taken by the variable but never close the underlying system resource:
71 /// use std::fs::File;
73 /// let file = File::open("foo.txt").unwrap();
74 /// mem::forget(file);
77 /// This is useful when the ownership of the underlying resource was previously
78 /// transferred to code outside of Rust, for example by transmitting the raw
79 /// file descriptor to C code.
81 /// # Relationship with `ManuallyDrop`
83 /// While `mem::forget` can also be used to transfer *memory* ownership, doing so is error-prone.
84 /// [`ManuallyDrop`] should be used instead. Consider, for example, this code:
89 /// let mut v = vec![65, 122];
90 /// // Build a `String` using the contents of `v`
91 /// let s = unsafe { String::from_raw_parts(v.as_mut_ptr(), v.len(), v.capacity()) };
92 /// // leak `v` because its memory is now managed by `s`
93 /// mem::forget(v); // ERROR - v is invalid and must not be passed to a function
94 /// assert_eq!(s, "Az");
95 /// // `s` is implicitly dropped and its memory deallocated.
98 /// There are two issues with the above example:
100 /// * If more code were added between the construction of `String` and the invocation of
101 /// `mem::forget()`, a panic within it would cause a double free because the same memory
102 /// is handled by both `v` and `s`.
103 /// * After calling `v.as_mut_ptr()` and transmitting the ownership of the data to `s`,
104 /// the `v` value is invalid. Even when a value is just moved to `mem::forget` (which won't
105 /// inspect it), some types have strict requirements on their values that
106 /// make them invalid when dangling or no longer owned. Using invalid values in any
107 /// way, including passing them to or returning them from functions, constitutes
108 /// undefined behavior and may break the assumptions made by the compiler.
110 /// Switching to `ManuallyDrop` avoids both issues:
113 /// use std::mem::ManuallyDrop;
115 /// let v = vec![65, 122];
116 /// // Before we disassemble `v` into its raw parts, make sure it
117 /// // does not get dropped!
118 /// let mut v = ManuallyDrop::new(v);
119 /// // Now disassemble `v`. These operations cannot panic, so there cannot be a leak.
120 /// let (ptr, len, cap) = (v.as_mut_ptr(), v.len(), v.capacity());
121 /// // Finally, build a `String`.
122 /// let s = unsafe { String::from_raw_parts(ptr, len, cap) };
123 /// assert_eq!(s, "Az");
124 /// // `s` is implicitly dropped and its memory deallocated.
127 /// `ManuallyDrop` robustly prevents double-free because we disable `v`'s destructor
128 /// before doing anything else. `mem::forget()` doesn't allow this because it consumes its
129 /// argument, forcing us to call it only after extracting anything we need from `v`. Even
130 /// if a panic were introduced between construction of `ManuallyDrop` and building the
131 /// string (which cannot happen in the code as shown), it would result in a leak and not a
132 /// double free. In other words, `ManuallyDrop` errs on the side of leaking instead of
133 /// erring on the side of (double-)dropping.
135 /// Also, `ManuallyDrop` prevents us from having to "touch" `v` after transferring the
136 /// ownership to `s` — the final step of interacting with `v` to dispose of it without
137 /// running its destructor is entirely avoided.
139 /// [`Box`]: ../../std/boxed/struct.Box.html
140 /// [`Box::leak`]: ../../std/boxed/struct.Box.html#method.leak
141 /// [`Box::into_raw`]: ../../std/boxed/struct.Box.html#method.into_raw
142 /// [`mem::drop`]: drop
143 /// [ub]: ../../reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
145 #[rustc_const_stable(feature = "const_forget", since = "1.46.0")]
146 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
147 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_forget")]
148 pub const fn forget<T>(t: T) {
149 let _ = ManuallyDrop::new(t);
152 /// Like [`forget`], but also accepts unsized values.
154 /// This function is just a shim intended to be removed when the `unsized_locals` feature gets
157 #[unstable(feature = "forget_unsized", issue = "none")]
158 pub fn forget_unsized<T: ?Sized>(t: T) {
159 intrinsics::forget(t)
162 /// Returns the size of a type in bytes.
164 /// More specifically, this is the offset in bytes between successive elements
165 /// in an array with that item type including alignment padding. Thus, for any
166 /// type `T` and length `n`, `[T; n]` has a size of `n * size_of::<T>()`.
168 /// In general, the size of a type is not stable across compilations, but
169 /// specific types such as primitives are.
171 /// The following table gives the size for primitives.
173 /// Type | size_of::\<Type>()
174 /// ---- | ---------------
191 /// Furthermore, `usize` and `isize` have the same size.
193 /// The types `*const T`, `&T`, `Box<T>`, `Option<&T>`, and `Option<Box<T>>` all have
194 /// the same size. If `T` is Sized, all of those types have the same size as `usize`.
196 /// The mutability of a pointer does not change its size. As such, `&T` and `&mut T`
197 /// have the same size. Likewise for `*const T` and `*mut T`.
199 /// # Size of `#[repr(C)]` items
201 /// The `C` representation for items has a defined layout. With this layout,
202 /// the size of items is also stable as long as all fields have a stable size.
204 /// ## Size of Structs
206 /// For `structs`, the size is determined by the following algorithm.
208 /// For each field in the struct ordered by declaration order:
210 /// 1. Add the size of the field.
211 /// 2. Round up the current size to the nearest multiple of the next field's [alignment].
213 /// Finally, round the size of the struct to the nearest multiple of its [alignment].
214 /// The alignment of the struct is usually the largest alignment of all its
215 /// fields; this can be changed with the use of `repr(align(N))`.
217 /// Unlike `C`, zero sized structs are not rounded up to one byte in size.
221 /// Enums that carry no data other than the discriminant have the same size as C enums
222 /// on the platform they are compiled for.
224 /// ## Size of Unions
226 /// The size of a union is the size of its largest field.
228 /// Unlike `C`, zero sized unions are not rounded up to one byte in size.
235 /// // Some primitives
236 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::size_of::<i32>());
237 /// assert_eq!(8, mem::size_of::<f64>());
238 /// assert_eq!(0, mem::size_of::<()>());
241 /// assert_eq!(8, mem::size_of::<[i32; 2]>());
242 /// assert_eq!(12, mem::size_of::<[i32; 3]>());
243 /// assert_eq!(0, mem::size_of::<[i32; 0]>());
246 /// // Pointer size equality
247 /// assert_eq!(mem::size_of::<&i32>(), mem::size_of::<*const i32>());
248 /// assert_eq!(mem::size_of::<&i32>(), mem::size_of::<Box<i32>>());
249 /// assert_eq!(mem::size_of::<&i32>(), mem::size_of::<Option<&i32>>());
250 /// assert_eq!(mem::size_of::<Box<i32>>(), mem::size_of::<Option<Box<i32>>>());
253 /// Using `#[repr(C)]`.
259 /// struct FieldStruct {
265 /// // The size of the first field is 1, so add 1 to the size. Size is 1.
266 /// // The alignment of the second field is 2, so add 1 to the size for padding. Size is 2.
267 /// // The size of the second field is 2, so add 2 to the size. Size is 4.
268 /// // The alignment of the third field is 1, so add 0 to the size for padding. Size is 4.
269 /// // The size of the third field is 1, so add 1 to the size. Size is 5.
270 /// // Finally, the alignment of the struct is 2 (because the largest alignment amongst its
271 /// // fields is 2), so add 1 to the size for padding. Size is 6.
272 /// assert_eq!(6, mem::size_of::<FieldStruct>());
275 /// struct TupleStruct(u8, u16, u8);
277 /// // Tuple structs follow the same rules.
278 /// assert_eq!(6, mem::size_of::<TupleStruct>());
280 /// // Note that reordering the fields can lower the size. We can remove both padding bytes
281 /// // by putting `third` before `second`.
283 /// struct FieldStructOptimized {
289 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::size_of::<FieldStructOptimized>());
291 /// // Union size is the size of the largest field.
293 /// union ExampleUnion {
298 /// assert_eq!(2, mem::size_of::<ExampleUnion>());
301 /// [alignment]: align_of
304 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
306 #[rustc_const_stable(feature = "const_mem_size_of", since = "1.24.0")]
307 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_size_of")]
308 pub const fn size_of<T>() -> usize {
309 intrinsics::size_of::<T>()
312 /// Returns the size of the pointed-to value in bytes.
314 /// This is usually the same as `size_of::<T>()`. However, when `T` *has* no
315 /// statically-known size, e.g., a slice [`[T]`][slice] or a [trait object],
316 /// then `size_of_val` can be used to get the dynamically-known size.
318 /// [trait object]: ../../book/ch17-02-trait-objects.html
325 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::size_of_val(&5i32));
327 /// let x: [u8; 13] = [0; 13];
328 /// let y: &[u8] = &x;
329 /// assert_eq!(13, mem::size_of_val(y));
333 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
334 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_size_of_val", issue = "46571")]
335 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_size_of_val")]
336 pub const fn size_of_val<T: ?Sized>(val: &T) -> usize {
337 // SAFETY: `val` is a reference, so it's a valid raw pointer
338 unsafe { intrinsics::size_of_val(val) }
341 /// Returns the size of the pointed-to value in bytes.
343 /// This is usually the same as `size_of::<T>()`. However, when `T` *has* no
344 /// statically-known size, e.g., a slice [`[T]`][slice] or a [trait object],
345 /// then `size_of_val_raw` can be used to get the dynamically-known size.
349 /// This function is only safe to call if the following conditions hold:
351 /// - If `T` is `Sized`, this function is always safe to call.
352 /// - If the unsized tail of `T` is:
353 /// - a [slice], then the length of the slice tail must be an initialized
354 /// integer, and the size of the *entire value*
355 /// (dynamic tail length + statically sized prefix) must fit in `isize`.
356 /// - a [trait object], then the vtable part of the pointer must point
357 /// to a valid vtable acquired by an unsizing coercion, and the size
358 /// of the *entire value* (dynamic tail length + statically sized prefix)
359 /// must fit in `isize`.
360 /// - an (unstable) [extern type], then this function is always safe to
361 /// call, but may panic or otherwise return the wrong value, as the
362 /// extern type's layout is not known. This is the same behavior as
363 /// [`size_of_val`] on a reference to a type with an extern type tail.
364 /// - otherwise, it is conservatively not allowed to call this function.
366 /// [trait object]: ../../book/ch17-02-trait-objects.html
367 /// [extern type]: ../../unstable-book/language-features/extern-types.html
372 /// #![feature(layout_for_ptr)]
375 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::size_of_val(&5i32));
377 /// let x: [u8; 13] = [0; 13];
378 /// let y: &[u8] = &x;
379 /// assert_eq!(13, unsafe { mem::size_of_val_raw(y) });
383 #[unstable(feature = "layout_for_ptr", issue = "69835")]
384 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_size_of_val_raw", issue = "46571")]
385 pub const unsafe fn size_of_val_raw<T: ?Sized>(val: *const T) -> usize {
386 // SAFETY: the caller must provide a valid raw pointer
387 unsafe { intrinsics::size_of_val(val) }
390 /// Returns the [ABI]-required minimum alignment of a type in bytes.
392 /// Every reference to a value of the type `T` must be a multiple of this number.
394 /// This is the alignment used for struct fields. It may be smaller than the preferred alignment.
396 /// [ABI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface
401 /// # #![allow(deprecated)]
404 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::min_align_of::<i32>());
408 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
409 #[deprecated(note = "use `align_of` instead", since = "1.2.0")]
410 pub fn min_align_of<T>() -> usize {
411 intrinsics::min_align_of::<T>()
414 /// Returns the [ABI]-required minimum alignment of the type of the value that `val` points to in
417 /// Every reference to a value of the type `T` must be a multiple of this number.
419 /// [ABI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface
424 /// # #![allow(deprecated)]
427 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::min_align_of_val(&5i32));
431 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
432 #[deprecated(note = "use `align_of_val` instead", since = "1.2.0")]
433 pub fn min_align_of_val<T: ?Sized>(val: &T) -> usize {
434 // SAFETY: val is a reference, so it's a valid raw pointer
435 unsafe { intrinsics::min_align_of_val(val) }
438 /// Returns the [ABI]-required minimum alignment of a type in bytes.
440 /// Every reference to a value of the type `T` must be a multiple of this number.
442 /// This is the alignment used for struct fields. It may be smaller than the preferred alignment.
444 /// [ABI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface
451 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::align_of::<i32>());
455 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
457 #[rustc_const_stable(feature = "const_align_of", since = "1.24.0")]
458 pub const fn align_of<T>() -> usize {
459 intrinsics::min_align_of::<T>()
462 /// Returns the [ABI]-required minimum alignment of the type of the value that `val` points to in
465 /// Every reference to a value of the type `T` must be a multiple of this number.
467 /// [ABI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface
474 /// assert_eq!(4, mem::align_of_val(&5i32));
478 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
479 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_align_of_val", issue = "46571")]
481 pub const fn align_of_val<T: ?Sized>(val: &T) -> usize {
482 // SAFETY: val is a reference, so it's a valid raw pointer
483 unsafe { intrinsics::min_align_of_val(val) }
486 /// Returns the [ABI]-required minimum alignment of the type of the value that `val` points to in
489 /// Every reference to a value of the type `T` must be a multiple of this number.
491 /// [ABI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_binary_interface
495 /// This function is only safe to call if the following conditions hold:
497 /// - If `T` is `Sized`, this function is always safe to call.
498 /// - If the unsized tail of `T` is:
499 /// - a [slice], then the length of the slice tail must be an initialized
500 /// integer, and the size of the *entire value*
501 /// (dynamic tail length + statically sized prefix) must fit in `isize`.
502 /// - a [trait object], then the vtable part of the pointer must point
503 /// to a valid vtable acquired by an unsizing coercion, and the size
504 /// of the *entire value* (dynamic tail length + statically sized prefix)
505 /// must fit in `isize`.
506 /// - an (unstable) [extern type], then this function is always safe to
507 /// call, but may panic or otherwise return the wrong value, as the
508 /// extern type's layout is not known. This is the same behavior as
509 /// [`align_of_val`] on a reference to a type with an extern type tail.
510 /// - otherwise, it is conservatively not allowed to call this function.
512 /// [trait object]: ../../book/ch17-02-trait-objects.html
513 /// [extern type]: ../../unstable-book/language-features/extern-types.html
518 /// #![feature(layout_for_ptr)]
521 /// assert_eq!(4, unsafe { mem::align_of_val_raw(&5i32) });
525 #[unstable(feature = "layout_for_ptr", issue = "69835")]
526 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_align_of_val_raw", issue = "46571")]
527 pub const unsafe fn align_of_val_raw<T: ?Sized>(val: *const T) -> usize {
528 // SAFETY: the caller must provide a valid raw pointer
529 unsafe { intrinsics::min_align_of_val(val) }
532 /// Returns `true` if dropping values of type `T` matters.
534 /// This is purely an optimization hint, and may be implemented conservatively:
535 /// it may return `true` for types that don't actually need to be dropped.
536 /// As such always returning `true` would be a valid implementation of
537 /// this function. However if this function actually returns `false`, then you
538 /// can be certain dropping `T` has no side effect.
540 /// Low level implementations of things like collections, which need to manually
541 /// drop their data, should use this function to avoid unnecessarily
542 /// trying to drop all their contents when they are destroyed. This might not
543 /// make a difference in release builds (where a loop that has no side-effects
544 /// is easily detected and eliminated), but is often a big win for debug builds.
546 /// Note that [`drop_in_place`] already performs this check, so if your workload
547 /// can be reduced to some small number of [`drop_in_place`] calls, using this is
548 /// unnecessary. In particular note that you can [`drop_in_place`] a slice, and that
549 /// will do a single needs_drop check for all the values.
551 /// Types like Vec therefore just `drop_in_place(&mut self[..])` without using
552 /// `needs_drop` explicitly. Types like [`HashMap`], on the other hand, have to drop
553 /// values one at a time and should use this API.
555 /// [`drop_in_place`]: crate::ptr::drop_in_place
556 /// [`HashMap`]: ../../std/collections/struct.HashMap.html
560 /// Here's an example of how a collection might make use of `needs_drop`:
563 /// use std::{mem, ptr};
565 /// pub struct MyCollection<T> {
569 /// # impl<T> MyCollection<T> {
570 /// # fn iter_mut(&mut self) -> &mut [T] { &mut self.data }
571 /// # fn free_buffer(&mut self) {}
574 /// impl<T> Drop for MyCollection<T> {
575 /// fn drop(&mut self) {
578 /// if mem::needs_drop::<T>() {
579 /// for x in self.iter_mut() {
580 /// ptr::drop_in_place(x);
583 /// self.free_buffer();
590 #[stable(feature = "needs_drop", since = "1.21.0")]
591 #[rustc_const_stable(feature = "const_mem_needs_drop", since = "1.36.0")]
592 #[rustc_diagnostic_item = "needs_drop"]
593 pub const fn needs_drop<T: ?Sized>() -> bool {
594 intrinsics::needs_drop::<T>()
597 /// Returns the value of type `T` represented by the all-zero byte-pattern.
599 /// This means that, for example, the padding byte in `(u8, u16)` is not
600 /// necessarily zeroed.
602 /// There is no guarantee that an all-zero byte-pattern represents a valid value
603 /// of some type `T`. For example, the all-zero byte-pattern is not a valid value
604 /// for reference types (`&T`, `&mut T`) and functions pointers. Using `zeroed`
605 /// on such types causes immediate [undefined behavior][ub] because [the Rust
606 /// compiler assumes][inv] that there always is a valid value in a variable it
607 /// considers initialized.
609 /// This has the same effect as [`MaybeUninit::zeroed().assume_init()`][zeroed].
610 /// It is useful for FFI sometimes, but should generally be avoided.
612 /// [zeroed]: MaybeUninit::zeroed
613 /// [ub]: ../../reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
614 /// [inv]: MaybeUninit#initialization-invariant
618 /// Correct usage of this function: initializing an integer with zero.
623 /// let x: i32 = unsafe { mem::zeroed() };
624 /// assert_eq!(0, x);
627 /// *Incorrect* usage of this function: initializing a reference with zero.
630 /// # #![allow(invalid_value)]
633 /// let _x: &i32 = unsafe { mem::zeroed() }; // Undefined behavior!
634 /// let _y: fn() = unsafe { mem::zeroed() }; // And again!
638 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
639 #[allow(deprecated_in_future)]
641 #[rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_zeroed"]
643 pub unsafe fn zeroed<T>() -> T {
644 // SAFETY: the caller must guarantee that an all-zero value is valid for `T`.
646 intrinsics::assert_zero_valid::<T>();
647 MaybeUninit::zeroed().assume_init()
651 /// Bypasses Rust's normal memory-initialization checks by pretending to
652 /// produce a value of type `T`, while doing nothing at all.
654 /// **This function is deprecated.** Use [`MaybeUninit<T>`] instead.
655 /// It also might be slower than using `MaybeUninit<T>` due to mitigations that were put in place to
656 /// limit the potential harm caused by incorrect use of this function in legacy code.
658 /// The reason for deprecation is that the function basically cannot be used
659 /// correctly: it has the same effect as [`MaybeUninit::uninit().assume_init()`][uninit].
660 /// As the [`assume_init` documentation][assume_init] explains,
661 /// [the Rust compiler assumes][inv] that values are properly initialized.
663 /// Truly uninitialized memory like what gets returned here
664 /// is special in that the compiler knows that it does not have a fixed value.
665 /// This makes it undefined behavior to have uninitialized data in a variable even
666 /// if that variable has an integer type.
668 /// Therefore, it is immediate undefined behavior to call this function on nearly all types,
669 /// including integer types and arrays of integer types, and even if the result is unused.
671 /// [uninit]: MaybeUninit::uninit
672 /// [assume_init]: MaybeUninit::assume_init
673 /// [inv]: MaybeUninit#initialization-invariant
676 #[deprecated(since = "1.39.0", note = "use `mem::MaybeUninit` instead")]
677 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
678 #[allow(deprecated_in_future)]
680 #[rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_uninitialized"]
682 pub unsafe fn uninitialized<T>() -> T {
683 // SAFETY: the caller must guarantee that an uninitialized value is valid for `T`.
685 intrinsics::assert_uninit_valid::<T>();
686 let mut val = MaybeUninit::<T>::uninit();
688 // Fill memory with 0x01, as an imperfect mitigation for old code that uses this function on
689 // bool, nonnull, and noundef types. But don't do this if we actively want to detect UB.
690 if !cfg!(any(miri, sanitize = "memory")) {
691 val.as_mut_ptr().write_bytes(0x01, 1);
698 /// Swaps the values at two mutable locations, without deinitializing either one.
700 /// * If you want to swap with a default or dummy value, see [`take`].
701 /// * If you want to swap with a passed value, returning the old value, see [`replace`].
711 /// mem::swap(&mut x, &mut y);
713 /// assert_eq!(42, x);
714 /// assert_eq!(5, y);
717 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
718 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_swap", issue = "83163")]
719 pub const fn swap<T>(x: &mut T, y: &mut T) {
720 // NOTE(eddyb) SPIR-V's Logical addressing model doesn't allow for arbitrary
721 // reinterpretation of values as (chunkable) byte arrays, and the loop in the
722 // block optimization in `swap_slice` is hard to rewrite back
723 // into the (unoptimized) direct swapping implementation, so we disable it.
724 // FIXME(eddyb) the block optimization also prevents MIR optimizations from
725 // understanding `mem::replace`, `Option::take`, etc. - a better overall
726 // solution might be to make `ptr::swap_nonoverlapping` into an intrinsic, which
727 // a backend can choose to implement using the block optimization, or not.
728 // NOTE(scottmcm) MIRI is disabled here as reading in smaller units is a
729 // pessimization for it. Also, if the type contains any unaligned pointers,
730 // copying those over multiple reads is difficult to support.
731 #[cfg(not(any(target_arch = "spirv", miri)))]
733 // For types that are larger multiples of their alignment, the simple way
734 // tends to copy the whole thing to stack rather than doing it one part
735 // at a time, so instead treat them as one-element slices and piggy-back
736 // the slice optimizations that will split up the swaps.
737 if size_of::<T>() / align_of::<T>() > 4 {
738 // SAFETY: exclusive references always point to one non-overlapping
739 // element and are non-null and properly aligned.
740 return unsafe { ptr::swap_nonoverlapping(x, y, 1) };
744 // If a scalar consists of just a small number of alignment units, let
745 // the codegen just swap those pieces directly, as it's likely just a
746 // few instructions and anything else is probably overcomplicated.
748 // Most importantly, this covers primitives and simd types that tend to
749 // have size=align where doing anything else can be a pessimization.
750 // (This will also be used for ZSTs, though any solution works for them.)
754 /// Same as [`swap`] semantically, but always uses the simple implementation.
756 /// Used elsewhere in `mem` and `ptr` at the bottom layer of calls.
757 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_swap", issue = "83163")]
759 pub(crate) const fn swap_simple<T>(x: &mut T, y: &mut T) {
760 // We arrange for this to typically be called with small types,
761 // so this reads-and-writes approach is actually better than using
762 // copy_nonoverlapping as it easily puts things in LLVM registers
763 // directly and doesn't end up inlining allocas.
764 // And LLVM actually optimizes it to 3×memcpy if called with
765 // a type larger than it's willing to keep in a register.
766 // Having typed reads and writes in MIR here is also good as
767 // it lets MIRI and CTFE understand them better, including things
768 // like enforcing type validity for them.
769 // Importantly, read+copy_nonoverlapping+write introduces confusing
770 // asymmetry to the behaviour where one value went through read+write
771 // whereas the other was copied over by the intrinsic (see #94371).
773 // SAFETY: exclusive references are always valid to read/write,
774 // including being aligned, and nothing here panics so it's drop-safe.
776 let a = ptr::read(x);
777 let b = ptr::read(y);
783 /// Replaces `dest` with the default value of `T`, returning the previous `dest` value.
785 /// * If you want to replace the values of two variables, see [`swap`].
786 /// * If you want to replace with a passed value instead of the default value, see [`replace`].
790 /// A simple example:
795 /// let mut v: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2];
797 /// let old_v = mem::take(&mut v);
798 /// assert_eq!(vec![1, 2], old_v);
799 /// assert!(v.is_empty());
802 /// `take` allows taking ownership of a struct field by replacing it with an "empty" value.
803 /// Without `take` you can run into issues like these:
805 /// ```compile_fail,E0507
806 /// struct Buffer<T> { buf: Vec<T> }
808 /// impl<T> Buffer<T> {
809 /// fn get_and_reset(&mut self) -> Vec<T> {
810 /// // error: cannot move out of dereference of `&mut`-pointer
811 /// let buf = self.buf;
812 /// self.buf = Vec::new();
818 /// Note that `T` does not necessarily implement [`Clone`], so it can't even clone and reset
819 /// `self.buf`. But `take` can be used to disassociate the original value of `self.buf` from
820 /// `self`, allowing it to be returned:
825 /// # struct Buffer<T> { buf: Vec<T> }
826 /// impl<T> Buffer<T> {
827 /// fn get_and_reset(&mut self) -> Vec<T> {
828 /// mem::take(&mut self.buf)
832 /// let mut buffer = Buffer { buf: vec![0, 1] };
833 /// assert_eq!(buffer.buf.len(), 2);
835 /// assert_eq!(buffer.get_and_reset(), vec![0, 1]);
836 /// assert_eq!(buffer.buf.len(), 0);
839 #[stable(feature = "mem_take", since = "1.40.0")]
840 pub fn take<T: Default>(dest: &mut T) -> T {
841 replace(dest, T::default())
844 /// Moves `src` into the referenced `dest`, returning the previous `dest` value.
846 /// Neither value is dropped.
848 /// * If you want to replace the values of two variables, see [`swap`].
849 /// * If you want to replace with a default value, see [`take`].
853 /// A simple example:
858 /// let mut v: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2];
860 /// let old_v = mem::replace(&mut v, vec![3, 4, 5]);
861 /// assert_eq!(vec![1, 2], old_v);
862 /// assert_eq!(vec![3, 4, 5], v);
865 /// `replace` allows consumption of a struct field by replacing it with another value.
866 /// Without `replace` you can run into issues like these:
868 /// ```compile_fail,E0507
869 /// struct Buffer<T> { buf: Vec<T> }
871 /// impl<T> Buffer<T> {
872 /// fn replace_index(&mut self, i: usize, v: T) -> T {
873 /// // error: cannot move out of dereference of `&mut`-pointer
874 /// let t = self.buf[i];
881 /// Note that `T` does not necessarily implement [`Clone`], so we can't even clone `self.buf[i]` to
882 /// avoid the move. But `replace` can be used to disassociate the original value at that index from
883 /// `self`, allowing it to be returned:
886 /// # #![allow(dead_code)]
889 /// # struct Buffer<T> { buf: Vec<T> }
890 /// impl<T> Buffer<T> {
891 /// fn replace_index(&mut self, i: usize, v: T) -> T {
892 /// mem::replace(&mut self.buf[i], v)
896 /// let mut buffer = Buffer { buf: vec![0, 1] };
897 /// assert_eq!(buffer.buf[0], 0);
899 /// assert_eq!(buffer.replace_index(0, 2), 0);
900 /// assert_eq!(buffer.buf[0], 2);
903 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
904 #[must_use = "if you don't need the old value, you can just assign the new value directly"]
905 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_replace", issue = "83164")]
906 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_replace")]
907 pub const fn replace<T>(dest: &mut T, src: T) -> T {
908 // SAFETY: We read from `dest` but directly write `src` into it afterwards,
909 // such that the old value is not duplicated. Nothing is dropped and
910 // nothing here can panic.
912 let result = ptr::read(dest);
913 ptr::write(dest, src);
918 /// Disposes of a value.
920 /// This does so by calling the argument's implementation of [`Drop`][drop].
922 /// This effectively does nothing for types which implement `Copy`, e.g.
923 /// integers. Such values are copied and _then_ moved into the function, so the
924 /// value persists after this function call.
926 /// This function is not magic; it is literally defined as
929 /// pub fn drop<T>(_x: T) { }
932 /// Because `_x` is moved into the function, it is automatically dropped before
933 /// the function returns.
942 /// let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
944 /// drop(v); // explicitly drop the vector
947 /// Since [`RefCell`] enforces the borrow rules at runtime, `drop` can
948 /// release a [`RefCell`] borrow:
951 /// use std::cell::RefCell;
953 /// let x = RefCell::new(1);
955 /// let mut mutable_borrow = x.borrow_mut();
956 /// *mutable_borrow = 1;
958 /// drop(mutable_borrow); // relinquish the mutable borrow on this slot
960 /// let borrow = x.borrow();
961 /// println!("{}", *borrow);
964 /// Integers and other types implementing [`Copy`] are unaffected by `drop`.
967 /// #[derive(Copy, Clone)]
972 /// drop(x); // a copy of `x` is moved and dropped
973 /// drop(y); // a copy of `y` is moved and dropped
975 /// println!("x: {}, y: {}", x, y.0); // still available
978 /// [`RefCell`]: crate::cell::RefCell
980 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
981 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_drop")]
982 pub fn drop<T>(_x: T) {}
984 /// Bitwise-copies a value.
986 /// This function is not magic; it is literally defined as
988 /// pub fn copy<T: Copy>(x: &T) -> T { *x }
991 /// It is useful when you want to pass a function pointer to a combinator, rather than defining a new closure.
995 /// #![feature(mem_copy_fn)]
996 /// use core::mem::copy;
997 /// let result_from_ffi_function: Result<(), &i32> = Err(&1);
998 /// let result_copied: Result<(), i32> = result_from_ffi_function.map_err(copy);
1001 #[unstable(feature = "mem_copy_fn", issue = "98262")]
1002 pub const fn copy<T: Copy>(x: &T) -> T {
1006 /// Interprets `src` as having type `&Dst`, and then reads `src` without moving
1007 /// the contained value.
1009 /// This function will unsafely assume the pointer `src` is valid for [`size_of::<Dst>`][size_of]
1010 /// bytes by transmuting `&Src` to `&Dst` and then reading the `&Dst` (except that this is done
1011 /// in a way that is correct even when `&Dst` has stricter alignment requirements than `&Src`).
1012 /// It will also unsafely create a copy of the contained value instead of moving out of `src`.
1014 /// It is not a compile-time error if `Src` and `Dst` have different sizes, but it
1015 /// is highly encouraged to only invoke this function where `Src` and `Dst` have the
1016 /// same size. This function triggers [undefined behavior][ub] if `Dst` is larger than
1019 /// [ub]: ../../reference/behavior-considered-undefined.html
1031 /// let foo_array = [10u8];
1034 /// // Copy the data from 'foo_array' and treat it as a 'Foo'
1035 /// let mut foo_struct: Foo = mem::transmute_copy(&foo_array);
1036 /// assert_eq!(foo_struct.bar, 10);
1038 /// // Modify the copied data
1039 /// foo_struct.bar = 20;
1040 /// assert_eq!(foo_struct.bar, 20);
1043 /// // The contents of 'foo_array' should not have changed
1044 /// assert_eq!(foo_array, [10]);
1048 #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
1049 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_transmute_copy", issue = "83165")]
1050 pub const unsafe fn transmute_copy<Src, Dst>(src: &Src) -> Dst {
1052 size_of::<Src>() >= size_of::<Dst>(),
1053 "cannot transmute_copy if Dst is larger than Src"
1056 // If Dst has a higher alignment requirement, src might not be suitably aligned.
1057 if align_of::<Dst>() > align_of::<Src>() {
1058 // SAFETY: `src` is a reference which is guaranteed to be valid for reads.
1059 // The caller must guarantee that the actual transmutation is safe.
1060 unsafe { ptr::read_unaligned(src as *const Src as *const Dst) }
1062 // SAFETY: `src` is a reference which is guaranteed to be valid for reads.
1063 // We just checked that `src as *const Dst` was properly aligned.
1064 // The caller must guarantee that the actual transmutation is safe.
1065 unsafe { ptr::read(src as *const Src as *const Dst) }
1069 /// Opaque type representing the discriminant of an enum.
1071 /// See the [`discriminant`] function in this module for more information.
1072 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1073 pub struct Discriminant<T>(<T as DiscriminantKind>::Discriminant);
1075 // N.B. These trait implementations cannot be derived because we don't want any bounds on T.
1077 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1078 impl<T> Copy for Discriminant<T> {}
1080 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1081 impl<T> clone::Clone for Discriminant<T> {
1082 fn clone(&self) -> Self {
1087 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1088 impl<T> cmp::PartialEq for Discriminant<T> {
1089 fn eq(&self, rhs: &Self) -> bool {
1094 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1095 impl<T> cmp::Eq for Discriminant<T> {}
1097 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1098 impl<T> hash::Hash for Discriminant<T> {
1099 fn hash<H: hash::Hasher>(&self, state: &mut H) {
1104 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1105 impl<T> fmt::Debug for Discriminant<T> {
1106 fn fmt(&self, fmt: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
1107 fmt.debug_tuple("Discriminant").field(&self.0).finish()
1111 /// Returns a value uniquely identifying the enum variant in `v`.
1113 /// If `T` is not an enum, calling this function will not result in undefined behavior, but the
1114 /// return value is unspecified.
1118 /// The discriminant of an enum variant may change if the enum definition changes. A discriminant
1119 /// of some variant will not change between compilations with the same compiler.
1123 /// This can be used to compare enums that carry data, while disregarding
1124 /// the actual data:
1129 /// enum Foo { A(&'static str), B(i32), C(i32) }
1131 /// assert_eq!(mem::discriminant(&Foo::A("bar")), mem::discriminant(&Foo::A("baz")));
1132 /// assert_eq!(mem::discriminant(&Foo::B(1)), mem::discriminant(&Foo::B(2)));
1133 /// assert_ne!(mem::discriminant(&Foo::B(3)), mem::discriminant(&Foo::C(3)));
1135 #[stable(feature = "discriminant_value", since = "1.21.0")]
1136 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "const_discriminant", issue = "69821")]
1137 #[cfg_attr(not(test), rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_discriminant")]
1138 #[cfg_attr(miri, track_caller)] // even without panics, this helps for Miri backtraces
1139 pub const fn discriminant<T>(v: &T) -> Discriminant<T> {
1140 Discriminant(intrinsics::discriminant_value(v))
1143 /// Returns the number of variants in the enum type `T`.
1145 /// If `T` is not an enum, calling this function will not result in undefined behavior, but the
1146 /// return value is unspecified. Equally, if `T` is an enum with more variants than `usize::MAX`
1147 /// the return value is unspecified. Uninhabited variants will be counted.
1149 /// Note that an enum may be expanded with additional variants in the future
1150 /// as a non-breaking change, for example if it is marked `#[non_exhaustive]`,
1151 /// which will change the result of this function.
1156 /// # #![feature(never_type)]
1157 /// # #![feature(variant_count)]
1162 /// enum Foo { A(&'static str), B(i32), C(i32) }
1164 /// assert_eq!(mem::variant_count::<Void>(), 0);
1165 /// assert_eq!(mem::variant_count::<Foo>(), 3);
1167 /// assert_eq!(mem::variant_count::<Option<!>>(), 2);
1168 /// assert_eq!(mem::variant_count::<Result<!, !>>(), 2);
1172 #[unstable(feature = "variant_count", issue = "73662")]
1173 #[rustc_const_unstable(feature = "variant_count", issue = "73662")]
1174 #[rustc_diagnostic_item = "mem_variant_count"]
1175 pub const fn variant_count<T>() -> usize {
1176 intrinsics::variant_count::<T>()
1179 /// Provides associated constants for various useful properties of types,
1180 /// to give them a canonical form in our code and make them easier to read.
1182 /// This is here only to simplify all the ZST checks we need in the library.
1183 /// It's not on a stabilization track right now.
1185 #[unstable(feature = "sized_type_properties", issue = "none")]
1186 pub trait SizedTypeProperties: Sized {
1187 /// `true` if this type requires no storage.
1188 /// `false` if its [size](size_of) is greater than zero.
1193 /// #![feature(sized_type_properties)]
1194 /// use core::mem::SizedTypeProperties;
1196 /// fn do_something_with<T>() {
1198 /// // ... special approach ...
1200 /// // ... the normal thing ...
1205 /// assert!(MyUnit::IS_ZST);
1207 /// // For negative checks, consider using UFCS to emphasize the negation
1208 /// assert!(!<i32>::IS_ZST);
1209 /// // As it can sometimes hide in the type otherwise
1210 /// assert!(!String::IS_ZST);
1213 #[unstable(feature = "sized_type_properties", issue = "none")]
1214 const IS_ZST: bool = size_of::<Self>() == 0;
1217 #[unstable(feature = "sized_type_properties", issue = "none")]
1218 impl<T> SizedTypeProperties for T {}